UNIV-DJELFA

Lectures in the Course: Ethical Philosophy Problematics

Level: Second year of Master's in General Philosophy

Course Duration: Six months

Unit: Core

Credits: 05

Coefficient: 02

Lecturer: Dr.ALLa Mokhtar

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Firstly, the concept of ethics in language and terminology:

Ethics in language: Ethics, linguistically, is derived from the word "khulq," which refers to the inherent nature and disposition of humans. Ibn Manzur stated that "khulq" (ethics) with a flat "Lam" and a silent "Haa" encompasses religion, nature, and disposition. Its essence lies in the inner form of a person, along with its attributes and meanings specific to it, akin to creation in terms of the outward form, attributes, and meanings. Referring to Ibn Manzur's "Lisan al-Arab," khulq is derived from akhlaq, and khalaqa has the meaning of nature. Ethics encompasses religion, nature, and its essence is a description of the inner and outer form of a person, both good and bad qualities ( Ibn Manzoor).

Ethics as a term: Among the more prevalent terminological concepts is what Ibn Maskawayh proposed, considering ethics as "a state of the soul, prompting actions without thought or premeditation." This state can be divided into two categories: those that are natural from the core of one's disposition, and those that are acquired through habit and training, possibly originating from reflection and thought but eventually becoming innate qualities ( Ibn Miskawiyeh, 1981).

 

Additionally, ethics refers to a set of behaviors an individual exhibits when dealing with events or individuals encountered in life. Most of these behaviors are acquired through upbringing and the environment in which the individual has lived throughout various stages of life (Al-Sana'I, bin Ibrahim, 1423 AH).

Secondly, practical ethics and theoretical ethics:

Undoubtedly, ethics can be divided into two branches: theoretical ethics and practical ethics. There is a general consensus on defining two main branches of ethics: theoretical ethics and practical ethics, as follows: ( Moza, 2000).

1. Theoretical Ethics:

The subjects of theoretical ethics encompass the examination of conscience and its reality, as well as its various emotional aspects, such as contentment, joy, and inner satisfaction when doing good deeds, as well as pain and remorse when engaging in wrongful acts. Theoretical ethics also delves into the ethical judgments that arise from various voluntary actions, questioning whether they originate from thought and reflection or from imitation and emulation.

This branch of ethics studies the methods used to determine the highest moral standards, explores the elements of ethical responsibility, such as freedom and will, and investigates related issues like judgment, choice, reward, punishment, and the motives that drive actions. It also examines the objectives that individuals and communities should aim for. Furthermore, it addresses the nature of good and evil, the criteria used to assess the ethical aspects of actions, and the concepts of right and duty, along with their associations.

All of this, along with the criticism directed at different theories and opinions concerning these issues, aims to find solutions to ethical problems that remain unresolved due to differing viewpoints. This branch of ethics is also referred to as moral philosophy. Theoretical ethics explores the overarching principles from which sub-duties are derived, such as the search for the absolute nature of goodness, the concept of virtue in itself, the origin and source of positivity, remote goals, and higher objectives of actions, among others.

1. Practical Ethics:

The topics within practical ethics revolve around various duties expected of individuals. These duties encompass an individual’s obligations towards themselves, their family, their work, their nation, and humanity as a whole. Furthermore, practical ethics examines an individual’s duties towards other living beings, such as animals, and their duty towards their Creator. It also explores rights, like the right to life and property.

Practical ethics delves into the types of virtuous qualities that individuals should possess and the relationship between theoretical ethics and practical ethics is akin to the relationship between the principles of jurisprudence and the practice of jurisprudence. Individuals practice these ethical principles in their daily lives, embodying qualities such as honesty, sincerity, trustworthiness, loyalty, chastity, courage, justice, compassion, and more. It’s essential to acknowledge the interconnection between theoretical and practical ethics, combining theoretical principles with practical application without separating the two.

Thirdly, the problem of ethics in the philosophy agenda:

The concept of ethics has taken on various dimensions depending on the philosophical traditions and individual philosophical perspectives. This leads us to highlight some of the key concepts closely related to the philosophical conception of ethics as a whole. Ethics is defined as “establishing the conditions that must be met in human will and human actions for them to become subjects of our ethical judgments.” ( Gauthier, 1945)

The Problem of Ethics in the Philosophy of Socrates (470–399 BC):

Socrates, the Greek philosopher born in 470 BC, is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and one of the earliest moral philosophers within the ethical tradition of thought. He sought to reestablish a genuine understanding of ethics after moral values had been scattered by the Sophists, who reduced all moral virtues to the pursuit of wisdom and the search for the value of the good.

Socrates aimed to demonstrate fixed truths based on reason within the context of the duality of reason and sense perception. This was done to establish absolute truths based on reason and refute the project of the Sophists, who, in their turn, tried strenuously to prove moral values based on sensation. Socrates countered this by utilizing a method of questioning and dialectics, believing that human beings possess both reason and a physical body. The power of one’s reason is what controls the motives of sensation and desires. Socrates argued that when the soul departs the body, it experiences everlasting happiness because it will live alongside the gods in the realm of the intellect (Al-Taweel, 1967).

Socrates’ ethical philosophy made significant contributions to the history of moral philosophy, including: (Zaid Waeli et al, 2014)

1. Emphasizing the importance of rationality in ethical decision-making.
2. Rejecting the relativism of the Sophists and advocating for the existence of objective moral truths.
3. Focusing on the moral improvement of individuals through self-examination and the pursuit of wisdom.
4. Promoting the idea that moral virtues are interconnected with knowledge and understanding.

Socrates’ moral philosophy laid the groundwork for subsequent ethical thought and continues to be a source of inspiration in the field of ethics:

1. Socrates aimed to restore stability and order to Athenian society after a period of upheaval caused by the Sophists. His goal was to bring back a sense of security and tranquility to the community. To achieve this, he needed to dismantle the Sophists’ theories, particularly their epistemological views, before extending his arguments to the realm of ethics. Socrates began by analyzing words to determine their meanings and clarify their connotations. He recognized that the Sophists relied on the use of words and the ambiguity of their meanings.
2. Socrates remained consistent with his philosophy and beliefs throughout his life, even when he faced imprisonment. When tempted to escape, he refused, demonstrating his unwavering commitment to his principles of submitting to the law and not fearing death. This decision reflects a high level of adherence to the values he set for himself.
3. Socrates arrived at enduring truths in the field of knowledge through reason, and he used this process to reach absolute values in the realm of ethics. He viewed human nature as a combination of body and mind, with the rational aspect controlling sensory impulses and desires. Therefore, ethical laws conflicted with the animalistic aspect of our nature and aligned with the rational part within us. Consequently, these ethical laws deserved respect, obedience, and punishment for those who violated them. Socrates emphasized self-knowledge as a path to wisdom, and his philosophy is encapsulated in the motto, “Know thyself by thyself.”
4. Socrates aimed to establish ethics based on reason, eliminating the need to defer to external authorities such as gods or customs, which were prevalent beliefs of his time. He made ethical rules unchanging and universal, not dependent on the interests of people or subject to change with time or place. By doing so, he grounded ethics in rationality and objective principles.
5. Socrates’ ethical foundation became the official philosophy in religious doctrines and among proponents of rational thinking. This ethical approach has endured despite contemporary philosophical revolutions that oppose philosophical reasoning. This resilience underscores the strength of Socratic ethics, which continues to contend with modern ethical frameworks.
6. Indeed, all ethical theories since Socrates have, in essence, been attempts to explain the relationship between facts and values. Naturalistic theories seek to unify these aspects, while non-naturalistic theories focus on the differences between them. Socrates succeeded in drawing attention to the problem of exploring the connections between values and facts. In this regard, he is considered the founder of ethical philosophy, as his work laid the groundwork for subsequent ethical inquiries into the intricate relationship between morality and reality.

The problem of ethics and its function according to Plato (428/427 BCE):

Plato, the ancient Greek philosopher, regarded ethics as responsible for achieving justice in society. He saw the individual as the foundation of the community, which operates according to the conditions of nature. Plato viewed society as a natural phenomenon arising from the diversity of individual needs and their inability to fulfill them independently. However, he approached this from a rational perspective and made a distinction between knowledge based on sensory perception and the timeless, abstract Forms.

Plato considered the highest Form to be the source of existence and perfection, in contrast to Socrates, who delved into the particulars of sensory experiences. According to Plato, a wise soul is one in which all faculties function in harmony and unity. This is only achieved when the rational soul governs wisely. Plato aimed to go beyond merely observing people’s ethical behavior in reality because, in his view, it was insufficient for understanding the true meaning of values and virtues. He believed that behind the individual instances of realized goodness in people’s actions, there existed a rational and immutable goodness. This rational goodness served as an ideal that we ascend to using our intellects and our souls when the appetitive and spirited aspects of the soul are subject to the rational soul. In this state, justice is achieved, and virtue is realized. As long as the intellect is unified, the concepts of good and evil are one and the same ( Zaid Waeli, 2014).

The ethical problem according to Al-Farabi (260 AH/874 CE – 339 AH/950 CE):

Al-Farabi, also known as Abu Nasr Muhammad Al-Farabi, was a prominent Islamic philosopher and scholar who was born in 260 AH (874 CE) in Farab, which is in present-day Kazakhstan, and passed away in 339 AH (950 CE). He is considered the first founder of Islamic philosophy and made significant contributions to various fields, including medicine, physics, philosophy, music, and more.

Al-Farabi’s perspective on virtues is that they are acquired qualities that individuals attain through willpower and habituation. Habituation, in his view, involves repeatedly performing a particular action many times over an extended period and at regular intervals. Al-Farabi states, “All virtues and vices are acquired. A person, if he does not have a certain quality, can acquire it. Also, if a person has a quality, he can either acquire the opposite quality or change it to the opposite of what he has through habituation.”

Al-Farabi emphasizes that moral qualities are not innate but rather developed through a process of habituation. He argues that humans have the capacity to acquire virtues or move away from undesirable traits through a deliberate process of practice and repetition. This process leads to the development of virtues or the abandonment of vices.

Furthermore, Al-Farabi suggests that ethical qualities are influenced by the environment and society. He contends that individuals living in cities or states with a just and virtuous order are more likely to develop virtuous qualities. This is because the actions of individuals are shaped by the moral climate and the ethical norms of the society in which they live (Al-Sayed Saqr, 1998).

Important Note for Students:

In continuation of the lecture series according to the program and for good coordination between them and the practical session, we present these topics to be addressed in the practical session. They can be enriched in the form of texts or accompanying research for the course’s lectures, and they are as follows:

 Ethical Theory and Practical Life

– Ethical Schools of Thought

– Evolution of Ethics

 – Ethics, Metaphysics, and Religion

– Ethics, Politics, and Law

– Psychology of Ethical Behavior

 – Psychology of Moral Judgment

 – Absolute Ethics and Relative Ethics

 – Ethics of Justice

 – Ethics of Happiness

– Ethics of Law

 – Ethics of Pleasure

 – Ethics of Emotion

 – Ethics of Utility

– Ethics of Power

– Ethics of Conscience

 – Ethics of Duty

 – The Problem of Evil

– Human and Sin

– Human and Death

 – Applied Ethics in Biology, Medicine

 – Ethics of Professionalism in Justice and more.

 

Bibliography: ( These sources have been translated from Arabic to English)

Ibn Manzoor, Jamal al-Din Muhammad Ibn Makram, Lisan al-Arab, Beirut, Dar Sader, d.d., vol. 10/86. -

Ibn Miskawiyeh, Refinement of Morals and Purification of Races, Beirut, Dar Al-Kutub Al-Ilmiyyah, 1st edition, 1401 AH-1981, pp. 25-26-31.

Al-Sana'i, Saleh bin Ibrahim, Studies in Psychology from an Islamic Perspective, Riyadh, Dar Alam Al-Kutub, 1st edition, 1423 AH, p. 142

Moza Ahmed Rashid Al-Abbar, The Ethical Dimension of Islamic Political Thought..., Master’s Thesis, Alexandria University, Department of Philosophy, 2000, p. 25.26.

Leon Gauthier, translated by Muhammad Yusuf Musa, An Introduction to the Study of Philosophy in 1364 AH - 1945 AD, National Book House. pp. 89-91,

Tawfiq Al-Taweel, Congenital Philosophy: Our Origin and Development, Dar Al-Nahda Al-Arabiyya, 1967. p. 21

Amer Zaid Waeli and others, Ethical Theory (From the Question of Founding to Penetrating Political Practice), Dar Al-Rawafed Al-Thaqafiyya, 1st edition, Lebanon, 2014.

Mustafa Al-Sayed Saqr. The Philosophy of Justice among the Greeks and its Impact, New Galaa Library, 1998, Cairo, p. 142.