SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
- SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The central aim behind introducing types of knowledge was to seek an accurate understanding of research and scientific knowledge. However, none of what has been referred to above tackle the idea of scientific knowledge. Simply, one should not hold the perspective that such kind of knowledge is different from the types mentioned above. Any of the fourteen categories of knowledge can be promoted to scientific knowledge if it satisfies certain criteria.
In this regard, (Bayley & Lucas, 2007) see that scientific knowledge “is presumed to be objectively proven because it is based on verifiable observation or data, i.e. what can be externally seen, heard, touched, and so on. In the positivist tradition, the insistence on observation-dependent facts aimed to put knowledge on a more secure footing by delivering it from the subjectivity of human introspection, personal bias, and opinion”. The definition rules out any kind of knowledge which does not originate from senses, or which is based on speculative imagining, on personal opinion, or preferences. In a nutshell, the key difference between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge is that the former is reliable because it is objectively proven knowledge (Creswell, 2014).
Furthermore, there is the belief that scientific knowledge is not discovered from the world but is the product of scientific research and mainly by scientists. In this respect, Constructivist epistemologists see that scientific knowledge stands on two fundamental pillars, logic and evidence. In other words, logic or reasonable thinking is deployed to postulate theories to account for natural or social phenomena. In turn, it is through empirical data or observation that these theories need to be confirmed or refuted. Furthermore, (Bhattacherjee, 2012) adds that “Over time, a theory becomes more and more refined (i.e., fits the observed reality better), and the science gains maturity. Scientific research involves continually moving back and forth between theory and observations”.
1.1. Research Methodology Definitions
The view of Bhattacherjee (2012) on the development of science as the process of a continual movement back and forth between theory and observations corresponds with the notion of research. According to (Singh, 2006), the latter corresponds with the term research which he explains by “ ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something, the following is the process:
In the same vein, according to Rusk ( as cited in Singh, 2006, p.05), “Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks questions that have hitherto not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure. It is not mere theorizing, but rather an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have been assembled. Research is likewise not an attempt to bolster up pre-conceived opinions, and it implies a readiness to accept the conclusions to which an inquiry leads, no matter how unwelcome they may prove. When successful, research adds to the scientific knowledge of the subject.”
Stressing the fact that research is needed in all domains of our lives, Francis G. Cornell sees asserts that “To be sure the best research is that which is reliable verifiable and exhaustive so that it provides information in which we have confidence. The main point here is that research is, literally speaking, a kind of human behaviour, an activity in which people engage. By this definition, all intelligent human behaviour involves some research.” ( Rusk , n.d, as cited Singh,2006, p.05)
1.2. References
Allington, D., & Swann, J. (2009). Researching literary reading as social practice. Language and Literature, 18(3), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963947009105850
Bayley, R., & Lucas, C. (2007). Sociolinguistic variation: Theories, methods, and applications. Cambridge University Press. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=321456
Berg, B. L. (2001). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (4th ed). Allyn and Bacon.
Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices.
Borzillo, S. (2007). Communities of practice to actively manage best practices (1. Aufl). Dt. Univ.-Verl.
Carpi, A., & Egger, A. (2009). The Culture of Science:Scientific Ethics. Visionlearning, POS-2(5).
Clark, A. (2003). Natural-born cyborgs: Minds, technologies, and the future of human intelligence. Oxford University Press.
Crano, W. D., & Brewer, M. B. (2002). Principles and methods of social research (2nd ed). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed). Pearson.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed). SAGE Publications.
Drake, P., & Heath, L. (2011). Practitioner research at doctoral level: Developing coherent research methodologies. Routledge.
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Kadushin, C., Hecht, S., Sasson, T., & Saxe, L. (2008). Triangulation and Mixed Methods Designs: Practicing What We Preach in the Evaluation of an Israel Experience Educational Program. Field Methods, 20(1), 46–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X07307426
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods & techniques. New Age International (P) Ltd. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=431524
Kumar, R. (2011). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (3rd ed). SAGE.
Laugksch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84(1), 71–94.
Litosseliti, L. (Ed.). (2010). Research methods in linguistics. Continuum.
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2010). Second language research: Methodology and design (Repr). Routledge.
Nagel, J. (2014). Knowledge: A very short introduction (First edition). Oxford University Press.
Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (7. ed., Pearson new internat. ed). Pearson.
Novikov, A. M., & Novikov, D. A. (2013). Research methodology from philosophy of science to research design. CRC Press. http://0-marc.crcnetbase.com.fama.us.es/isbn/9780203764725
Polanyi, M. (1962). Tacit knowing. Philosophy Today, 6(4), 239–262.
Powers, G. T., Meenaghan, T. M., & Toomey, B. G. (1985). Practice focused research: Integrating human service practice and research. Prentice Hall.
Singh, Y. K. (2006). Fundamental of research methodology and statistics. New Age International Pvt. Ltd., Publishers.
Tavakoli, H. (2013). A dictionary of research methodology and statistics in applied linguistics. Rahnamā.
Thomas, B. (2015). Problem Formulation in Social Work Research: Issues and Concerns. International Journal of Social and Economic Research, 5(4), 65. https://doi.org/10.5958/2249-6270.2015.00055.0
1.3. Quiz
1- What are the different research paradigms and how do they differ?
1.4. Further Reading
In his book Fundamental of research methodology and statistics, Singh 2006 listed several definitions of research methodology which every student is advised to read